Pokémon are creatures similar to other groups of organisms such as fungi, plants, protists, and animals. The Pokémon lineage became separated from these other groups of organisms approximately 1.5 billion years ago, but has independently adopted similar characteristics. Most Pokémon occupy a similar life history to animals in that they hatch from eggs, develop, consume resources, reproduce, and die.
Pokémon have a number of relationships with humans, they serve as pets, work partners, companions, protectors, and food. Similar to plants, which have specialised organelles that allow them to photosynthesise and survive (chloroplasts), Pokémon are distinct from animals, in that different groups have unique organelles and physiological adaptations that make them powerful, specialised organisms. Pokémon possess advanced mental capacities that allow them to comprehend human languages and communicate between species.
Most Pokémon reach discrete stages in their life cycle and undergo an evolutionary metamorphosis, similar to that of some insect families, such as butterflies and moths, or like some vertebrates, such as amphibians. This metamorphosis or ‘evolution’ (see, ‘Evolutionary Family’) includes a radical change in the Pokémon’s physiology, personality, and power. The subsequent stages in a Pokémon’s life cycle (after evolutionary metamorphosis) are classed as different species; although each stage is defined as a different species, all are referred to as members of the same evolutionary family/line. Terms such as species, evolution, and evolutionary family have distinctly different meanings from those used to define other organisms (see, ‘Species Concept’).
Seventeen defined elemental types describe each Pokémon species, (see, 'Pokémon Types') these types include: Normal, Fire, Water, Electric, Grass, Psychic, Fighting, Poison, Ground, Flying, Dragon, Bug, Rock, Ghost, Ice, Steel, and Dark. All Pokémon species are associated with either one or two of the seventeen elemental types. Each species’ type often reflects the habitat under which the particular species evolved; some species are specialised for particular tasks, depending on their physiological characteristics, e.g. Water and Ground-typed Pokémon are commonly part of firefighting services (see, ‘Pokémon-human interactions’).
Pokémon hunt, defend themselves, and attract mates with an extremely diverse set of actions termed ‘moves’; every move is classified as belonging to one of the seventeen elemental types above. A given Pokémon species may be affiliated with either one or two types, however a move may only be classed as a single type. The combative effectiveness of a move (of a particular type) against a Pokémon (of a given type combination) is governed by a complex set of interactions, comparable to scissors, paper, rock (see, ‘Pokémon Types’).
In each Pokémon region, natives approaching adolescence begin a journey with Pokémon as a development of character and display of maturity. For this tradition, known as Pokémon training, particular evolutionary families, known as ‘starter Pokémon’, have been selectively bred to produce optimum initial partners (Figure 1). Pokémon trainers travel around their native region, meeting wild Pokémon and other Pokémon trainers. With the assistance of the trainers’ starter Pokémon, new wild Pokémon are captured to assist in the trainers’ travels around the region. These newly caught Pokémon can act as companions and accompany the trainer on their travels; the team of Pokémon accompanying a trainer cannot exceed 6 members at any one time. A trainer and his/her team of Pokémon (Figure 2 to be inserted) gain experience through sparring with wild Pokémon as well as the Pokémon team of other trainers. The experience gained by the trainer and their team is tested periodically at special venues known as Pokémon Gyms in particular cities; then ultimately at the elite level of the Pokémon League. Funding for the Pokémon journey, including the Gyms and Pokémon league, is heavily subsidised by the government in each region, as its character-building value has been noted in the low levels of teen crime and success of accredited Pokémon trainers in these regions.
Scientists study many aspects of Pokémon biology including: breeding, ecology, interaction with humans, diversity, and evolutionary origins (see, ‘Evolution’). Some species of Pokémon have only a single known individual composing the species, these individuals are presumably very long-lived, the last member of the species, or else parthenogenic – these individuals are known as legendary Pokémon. Similar to many other groups of organisms, the prevalence of particular species varies; some species are highly common, some rare, and some ‘legendary’ (see, ‘Ecology’) (Figure 3).
There are hundreds of different species of Pokémon; all are confined to a number of islands, consequently their mobility determines how common they are between these islands. The Unova region, previously composed of purely native Pokémon that had not yet immigrated to other regions, contains over 150 endemic species. Pokémon populations have effectively displaced all conspicuous animal populations from their resident islands; however are capable of coexisting with plants, fungi, other eukaryotic organisms, bacteria, and viruses. With the advent of modern modes of transport, exotic species of Pokémon have been introduced to the Unova region; this encyclopaedia covers only the species endemic to Unova.
Introduction
This world is widely inhabited by creatures known as Pokémon...
We humans live alongside Pokémon as friends.
At times we play together,
and at other times we work together.
Some people use their Pokémon
to battle and develop closer bonds with them.
What do I do?
I conduct research so that we may
learn more about Pokémon…
Now, go on, leap into the world of Pokémon!
Professor Rowan
Key Concepts
Evolutionary Family
Pokémon grow both continuously and in discrete stages; similar to amphibians or moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera). That is; an individual Pokémon larva hatched from an egg grows, develops and may, given particular environmental triggers, metamorphose into successive stages of its lifecycle. However, distinct from metamorphosing animal species, each successive stage of a Pokémon’s life cycle is classified as a different species. Each of the subsequent forms (species) arising from the metamorphosis of the larva belongs to the same ‘evolutionary family’ or 'evolutionary line'. Thus, a Pokémon’s evolutionary family is composed of a basic form (larva) and potential subsequent stages.
The number of species composing an evolutionary family varies; the most common evolutionary line includes a basic form with a subsequent stage (Figure 4). An evolutionary family may also be composed of a single base form with no subsequent stages (Figure 5). There are a number of unique variations on this pattern, however two subsequent stages is the largest possible evolutionary family (Figure 6 to be inserted).
Every base form (larva) and subsequent stage is capable of reproduction and therefore has no biological reproductive need to reach the final stage, a phenomenon known as neoteny. Similarly, in the animal kingdom, axolotls (Amphibia: Ambystomatidae) are the larval stage of salamanders and are capable of reproduction without reaching adulthood (Figure 7 to be inserted). The offspring produced by the pairing of any stage of an evolutionary family will result in the production of the base form (Table 1). Each member of the evolutionary line is related to one another and form a clade in classical evolutionary terms (see, ‘Evolution’), and share a common genus name.
Species Concept
The term ‘species’, in a Pokémon context, has a similar definition to the generally accepted biological term. The primary difference between these definitions, is that an individual Pokémon is able to produce offspring both with members of the same species (conspecifics) and with members from other species of Pokémon (heterospecifics). Most Pokémon are therefore capable of extreme hybridisation with other groups of organisms and are also capable of producing reproductively fertile offspring.
A Pokémon’s ‘egg group’ governs the reproductive compatibility between different species of Pokémon, i.e. their ability to produce offspring. The degree of genetic exchange between two different species also varies depending on the evolutionary relatedness of the two Pokémon (see ‘Genetic Transmission’).
The name of each Pokémon species is generally denoted with uppercase lettering, e.g. ‘Sewaddle’ whilst the entire evolutionary family is punctuated in lowercase: ‘sewaddle family’. Binomial (two-name) nomenclature defining each species follows similar rules to other biological nomenclature, with a capital letter denoting genus and lowercase specifying the species, e.g. Homo sapiens.
Egg Group
Each species of Pokémon may be classed as belonging to a particular egg group. Egg groups determine which varieties of Pokémon are capable of producing offspring. The genomes of Pokémon from each egg group have a unique number of chromosomes associated with them, thus preventing successful fertilisation between Pokémon from different egg groups. Similar to the different ‘types’, a particular Pokémon may belong to either one or two different egg groups. Radical examples of hybridisation are possible with the genetic exchange arrangement between Pokémon, potentially explaining similarities in characteristics between largely diverged species (Figure 8 to be inserted).
The offspring of Pokémon from two different species, within the same egg group, is determined by the maternal sex chromosomes; the emergent Pokémon will be conspecific with the mother (Table 1).
Evolution
The evolutionary metamorphosis exhibited by Pokémon in a single lifetime is an extreme example of ‘ontogeny recapitulating phylogeny’ or ‘evo-devo’. ‘Ontogeny’ describes the growth and development of an organism from a single cell to maturity/adult form. The evolutionary history of an organism is also known as it’s ‘phylogeny’. The genetic variation acquired over a Pokémon’s evolutionary history (phylogeny) is often retained within a Pokémon’s genome. Each successive evolutionary stage of a Pokémon’s development (each member of the family) is theorised to represent the adult form of the species in the past (Figure 9) (Figure 10 to be inserted); this theory is based off of genetic and fossil evidence. The basic fossil pattern observed for Pokémon evolution has recent strata containing all stages of the evolutionary family, including larvae through to the final stage. Going further back through time and increasingly ancient strata, the later stages of the evolutionary family are not present. These observations suggest that the early, larval stages of evolutionary families are generally primitive species, while the later stages of the family have a more recent evolutionary history.
An analogous and considerably less radical example of evo-devo is the life cycle of amphibians, with the expression of primitive fish characteristics (gills, aquatic life history, tail used for swimming etc.) initially displayed in the larval stage. Metamorphosis occurs and the amphibian loses the primitive fish characteristics; expressing the ‘newer’ or more derived amphibian form, i.e. lung usage and loss of tail, the animals is then capable of land and water existence in adulthood (Figure 11 to be inserted). The genes required to produce the fish characteristics may be vestigial, and present since the Devonian era when fish represented the adult stage of the life cycle. Amphibians’ gradual emergence onto land from fish ancestors (also in the Devonian era) favoured those larval fish characteristics (gills and tail) each generation, and thus retained them in the current lifecycle of amphibians.
The biological process of expressing various ‘snapshots’ of the species’ evolutionary history, within the lifetime, likely indicates this to be an advantageous and successful trait. If however, retaining and expressing ancestral characteristics is an unavoidable genetic trait of Pokémon, a consistent prediction posits there to be many cases where this phenomenon is detrimental to the species. Hypothetically, a disadvantageous larval form whose presence hindered the survival or reproductive chances of an adult may have had its lifespan suppressed to within egg-development. Thus evolutionary families of Pokémon composed of a sole base form, e.g. Pinsir, benefit from expressing only the adult stage of development and may theoretically express or recapitulate a larval form during egg-based development (Figure 5).
The mere presence of evo-devo in Pokémon biology suggests this phenomenon to be a successful, long-term evolutionary characteristic, or ‘tool’ even for Pokémon species with a single base form. The advantage of the ‘ontogeny recapitulating phylogeny’ phenomenon may work as follows - a Pokémon, e.g. Pinsir, whose larval form is detrimental to the species’ survival is suppressed to the egg stage of development, emerging only once metamorphosis occurs, as the adult Pinsir. Conditions change such that a mutant Pinsir emerging from the egg earlier in embryogenesis is able to collect food and increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction for the adult individual. Such early emerging mutants may therefore be positively selected, as they spend smaller amounts of time gestating within the egg, and can exploit the environment in their larval form. This mutant that emerged with an ancestral (larval) physiology and behaviour distinct from the adult Pinsir has an advantage over other Pinsir individuals that are born in the environment that emerge only in the adult stage. This successful mutation (of early emergence) compounded over evolutionary time may reach a stage, such that evolutionary metamorphosis occurs outside the egg at a given point in the larval Pinsirs (termed a different name) lifecycle. This individual which is comparable to an external, fully functional embryo will thus be termed a distinct species (by future Pokémon taxonomists) and will largely express the physiology and behaviour of a Pinsir ancestor, matching a species in the fossil record.
From this theoretical model, it would be predicted that there are Pokémon species in a transitional state and potentially in the process of generating a new species and life stage. Members of the Pokémon species Kangaskhan (Phascophora tyrannos) often carry an offspring that is physiologically distinct from the parent however does not undergo discrete evolution or metamorphosis. The distinct form of the juvenile may represent an ancient Kangaskhan morphology and may therefore be in a transitional state between a sole evolutionary family, and a two-membered evolutionary family (Figure 12 to be inserted).
In weeks prior to evolutionary metamorphosis, Pokémon will begin changing their behaviour and consuming the resources required for their instantaneous evolution. It has been observed that particularly sentient Pokémon may be unwilling to undergo evolution. The sometimes-drastic change during evolution results in a change in personality, behaviour and sometimes degradation of memories and prior knowledge. These changes arise from alterations in body chemistry (hormones and neurotransmitters), brain morphology and many other aspects of the Pokémon’s physiology. A trainer may find this process unfavourable for their particular Pokémon; the trainer can naturally stop or delay evolution (metamorphosis) with the use of naturally occurring minerals.
Species composing the early stages of evolutionary families possess distinct anatomical differences and often use different sets of resources (food, shelter) to avoid competition with the adult stages of the group. The scientific field of evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo), studies the behaviour and anatomy of base form (larval) Pokémon.
Scientists determine the evolutionary history of species, and their relatedness to other groups of organisms by gathering evidence from many fields of science. At a broad scale, the depth of a fossil in the Earth provides information about how long ago the organism died; comparing the disappearance and appearance of fossils through time, scientists can determine how long the species was extant and which other species coexisted at that time.
At a finer scale, the way an organism is built can provide evidence for its function in the past. Some genes code for redundant organs that had a purpose in the past, these genes are neither beneficial nor detrimental, but are naturally switched on. During embryonic development, humans produce a long tail which is resorbed, eventually forming the coccyx, or tailbone; these phenomena are known as evolutionary vestiges.
Various stages of human evolution are classed as different species based on anatomical differences in fossils and other clues, e.g. Homo heidelbergensis and Homo erectus, although both are ancestors of a single species, i.e. Homo sapiens. Similar to animal palaeontologists, Pokémon palaeontologists and taxonomists class different stages of Pokémon evolution, throughout the fossil record, as distinct species. Different stages of a Pokémon’s current evolutionary family are named after the fossil ancestor they are theorised to be ‘recapitulating’. Each member of an evolutionary family represents a snapshot of the family’s phylogeny, therefore each stage can be located in the fossil record at a predictable time period within the Earth; this phenomenon makes the study of evo-devo possible; the extant larval form of a given Pokémon family can serve as a ‘time-capsule’. By studying evolutionary vestiges, information can be obtained about the conditions and challenges that affected the species’ prehistory.
Genetic Transmission (breeding)
As with many organisms, the genetic information of Pokémon is stored within their DNA. DNA may be organised into units known as chromosomes and plasmids (bacteria and some eukaryotes); a Pokémon genome is composed of two types of chromosomes: autosomes and sex chromosomes (denoted by the letter ‘T’). As well as these two types of chromosomes (autosomal and sex), the cells of Pokémon also contain DNA organised into special structures known as plasmids (see ‘LUCA, Epigenetics and Phenotypic Plasticity’). Although each egg group has a defining number of chromosomes (see ‘Egg Group’); all Pokémon species share the same number of sex chromosomes. This pattern differs between male and female Pokémon; males contain a pair of sex chromosomes (TT), while females contain just one sex chromosome (T) in each cell.
Some traits may be sex-linked, that is to say, particular traits are coded for specifically by the sex chromosomes, not the autosomes. Several human traits are associated with sex-linked genes including gender determination and colour blindness. Similarly, a Pokémon’s gender and learnset (moves able to be performed by Pokémon) are determined by their sex chromosomes. Pokémon with a single sex chromosome, i.e. females (T), are capable of expressing a learnset, however are not capable of transmitting this genetic information to offspring. Pokémon with a pair of sex chromosomes, i.e. males (TT), are capable of both expressing the learnset and passing this information on to their offspring. Thus a newly hatched Pokémon is capable of inheriting moves from the father, but not the mother, this means that most mutations that resulted in the gradual evolution of a new move must have occurred (and thus been passed on) in the male lineage (see ‘Gene transmission of non-chromosomal DNA’)(Figure 13 to be inserted).
During the production of gametes, males produce sperm containing either one of their two sex chromosomes. Females however, produce gametes containing either one sex chromosome, or none at all; the gender of the resulting offspring is therefore determined by the mother (Table 2).
The degree of genetic compatibility and the resultant offspring varies depending on the evolutionary relationship of the parents (see below).
Conspecific and/or same evolutionary family
The pairing of two Pokémon from the same lineage (same evolutionary family) or members of the same species, undergo complete syngamy. The resultant offspring’s genetic information is unique and is composed of 50% paternal (father) genes and 50% maternal (mother) genes; these offspring may partially inherit the father’s learnset.
Heterospecific and same egg group
The pairing of two different species of Pokémon, from the same egg group but different family, results in incomplete syngamy. The autosomal component (non-sex chromosomes) of the father’s genome is incompatible with the female due to the differences between species. Although the paternal autosomes are not compatible with the egg, the sex chromosomes are. The father's genes contained on the sex chromosomes are thus passed on to the offspring. These pairings result in offspring which are essentially clones of the mother, however inherit sex-linked genetic information such as gender and the learnset, from the father. This mechanism underlies the gender determination previously explained (Table 2).
Heterospecific and different egg group(s)
This pairing of Pokémon is not capable of producing offspring.
Genderless
Genderless Pokémon are capable of breeding only with one unique species of Pokémon. Members of the Ditto species, Myxoduplica guianas, have the capacity to mimic the cellular structure and express the moveset of Pokémon from any other species. Pokémon without a gender are capable of producing a clone when accompanied by M. guianas. The reproductive nature of most legendary Pokémon is unknown, including their gender, lifespan and egg group.
Gender ratios
Exempting legendary and genderless Pokémon, all other species have a defined ratio of male to female individuals. Some Pokémon species are purely one gender and must reproduce with a compatible opposite gender Pokémon of a different species, including Myxoduplica guianas. A 50/50 or 1:1 gender ratio is the most common combination amongst Pokémon species, however there are evolutionary benefits to skewing this ratio and favouring the production of a particular gendered offspring.
Gene transmission of non-chromosomal DNA
Plasmids are molecules of DNA that may replicate and get transmitted independently of the chromosomes; bacteria may act as ‘vectors’ or carriers for transmitting this genetic information between individuals. Pokémon are commonly exposed to microorganisms such as bacteria; it is likely that these bacteria are likely an important medium for horizontal evolution, heavily shaping the current diversity of Pokémon.
Ecology
Pokémon diversity, distribution, and abundance are relatively predictable phenomena from an ecological standpoint. Pokémon exhibit a small range of feeding strategies as well as general nutrient requirements; these characteristics have led to small pockets of adaptive radiation in each respective region.
Pokémon herbivores are often generalists, that is, they do not specialise on any one particular group of flora (Figure 14). The successful generalist, strategy has stunted the rate of ‘competitive exclusion’, an evolutionary process that forces two groups of organisms competing for a single resource to diversify, and thus specialise on different resources (such as different flora). The outcome of these successful generalists is that there are high abundances of Pokémon, but little diversity.
In all regions containing Pokémon, there are generally a few species that are extremely common and wide spread; the rest of the diversity is restricted to niche pockets around the region. The majority of Pokémon species are rarer than the aforementioned group of common species. The rarer species and their evolutionary families are generally isolated to discrete locations around the Unova region, or to specific biomes such as snowy fields, caves etc. (Figure 15) (Figure 16 to be inserted). Abiotic environmental conditions are often an effective predictor for calculating the varieties of Pokémon that could be found in a given area. Fire-typed Pokémon, specialised to thriving in hot conditions can often be found in deserts or volcanically active areas, likewise, Ice-typed Pokémon are often found in cold areas and predictably expand their territory during winter.
A number of species termed ‘legendary Pokémon’ can radically alter ecosystems and even geological processes. Some legendary Pokémon can stimulate volcanic activity, distribute atmospheric gases, generate fertile soils, and generate destructive storms. These powerful species may produce islands and thus facilitate Pokémon evolution (speciation). Similarly, the generation of fertile soil can drastically alter plant communities and in turn, species abundance and diversity.
K-selected organisms are those that produce small amounts of large, healthy offspring with a high probability of survival; humans (Homo sapiens) are an example of a K-selected species. Most if not all Pokémon species are K-selected, this dynamic is often due to existence in a stable environment. Parental care varies substantially between species, thus Pokémon are not K-selected by traditional definitions. Pokémon have extremely high rates of healing, efficient and discriminating immune systems, and especially high levels of totipotent cells, vital for body reparation. Pokémon are large organisms, with no microscopic species yet discovered. It has been theorised that the presence of invertebrate animals, inconspicuous terrestrial vertebrates, and the microbes that coexist with Pokémon, perform vital community functions, fulfilling many niches, thus excluding Pokémon from assuming microscopic roles.
Many species of Pokémon have struck on analogous, ecological roles with non-Pokémon organisms, in a form of convergent evolution in regards to an ecosystem function. The half a dozen or so primate species in the Unova region serve as efficient seed dispersers for both plant Pokémon and non-Pokémon plants. Electric-typed Pokémon generate electricity and channel atmospheric lightning, producing vital nitrogen compounds for plant life and eventually the ecosystem. Ground Pokémon create extensive tunnels through the soil allowing oxygen and other nutrients to cycle through the soil, creating opportunities for plant life and other communities to establish. Mushroom Pokémon work in concert with organisms of the fungi kingdom to decompose organic matter for nutrient cycling.
‘Food webs’ or interlocking ‘food chains’ exist in each Pokémon region and follow a similar pattern to one another and to those found with other organisms. Herbivorous Pokémon consume Grass-typed Pokémon, plants and plant products. Herbivores are consumed by mesopredators or higher order carnivorous/omnivorous species (Figure 17). Some Psychic-typed species consume minimal resources, mainly focussing on foods with high levels of simple carbohydrates to facilitate mental activity. Other groups such as Dark-typed species may engage in a parasitic lifestyle, gaining resources through kleptoparasitism. Rock, Ground and Steel Pokémon also compete with one another for inorganic nutrients which they can turn into organic compounds. These Pokémon often have territory around rich soils, and other geological sites.
Ghost Pokémon subsist on low levels of nutrients, these organisms have extremely low metabolic rates (See, ‘Ghost’).
Pokémon-human interactions
The vast array of abilities and potential power of Pokémon has produced a wonderful, but marred history of Pokémon-human interactions.
Crime
Many Pokémon species are used by crime syndicates as weapons to forward agendas; particular species, or types of Pokémon, are often used for small time criminals as tools for robberies etc. Adult, fully developed Pokémon are capable of great feats of power such as controlled blasts of fire, demolitions, forming tunnels, teleporting material and producing mass-illusions. Entire groups, such as some Dark-typed Pokémon, have a proclivity towards malevolent acts of violence and crime; sometimes it is individual Pokémon that are behaviourally predisposed to crime. Although crime levels are unusually low in regions containing Pokémon, below-radar organised crime is highly prolific. As well as crime, Pokémon are often used as weapons to forward group agendas, such as Eco terrorist groups. Pokémon owned by trainers are often abducted for use in various crimes and abandoned to conceal the identity of perpetrators.
Conversely, Pokémon are also used by law enforcement. Psychic Pokémon are highly valuable for pre-empting or locating crime; police officers are often allocated pre-trained and experienced Pokémon for use in the force. Occasionally Pokémon trainers and members of the public assume vigilante roles; cases of ‘superheroes’ assuming the persona of a particular Pokémon species are featured heavily in the news.
Work Force
Pokémon form an integral part of the work force in all regions. Various species of Pokémon are used in hospitals due to their ability to heal and reassure patients. Many burly species of Pokémon are used in construction; some dextrous and intelligent species have positions in specialised jobs such as in the food industry. Electricity, fire and water generating Pokémon have obvious roles in generating power for townships and communities (Figure 18 to be inserted).
Domestic Roles
Many trainers retain their partner Pokémon after travelling around their native region, these Pokémon often go on to accompany their trainer in education, occupation, and domestic life. Pokémon in domestic roles share many similarities with individuals in the work force. Many people in specialised roles possess Pokémon with complementary natures, such as divers with Water Pokémon and pilots with Flying Pokémon. Gym leaders in each region specialise in a single type of Pokémon that suits their interests; commonly choosing a type that can aid in outside-gym occupations.
Occupations Involving Pokémon
There are many jobs that focus on caring for, and healing Pokémon. Specialised Pokémon centres are common; these facilities are run by Pokémon breeders, individuals that raise specialised Pokémon for particular roles or placement. Other large organisations are dedicated to minding individual Pokémon in the absence of their trainers. Pokémon that were once part of a trainer’s team may be released back into the wild, these individuals often must be cared for before reintroduction to the wild. By far the most prevalent and successful Pokémon healthcare facility is the Pokémon centre, or Pokécentre; there is generally at least one Pokécentre in every settlement containing Pokémon.
Pokémon sommeliers are professionals that orchestrate healthy relationships between Pokémon trainers and their team; these Pokémon aficionados make recommendations for improving the dynamics between individuals.
In many regions large-scale shows and competitions are frequently held; Pokémon and their trainers compete to display the health and physical vigour of their team. Pokémon must demonstrate their prowess by performing flawless moves and exhibiting unique abilities.
Pokémon rangers form an aid organisation that often operates on smaller scales such as towns and villages. These are groups that orchestrate emergency operations with the aid of specially trained rescue Pokémon.
Other
Many Pokémon species are consumed or used in cooking, some having become rare in particular regions do to their highly sought after meat. Some Pokémon products are used by humans for culinary, medicinal and other pursuits. Pokémon have also been the inspiration or direct source for many inventions such as concrete.
Battling
The evolution of battling
The evolutionary history of many Pokémon has been shaped by survival of the physically fittest, as well as the ability to display this to the opposite sex. The survival of most Pokémon species is therefore largely dependent on attributes governing defence and offence – these traits are heavily selected for by mates. The competitive nature of Pokémon made larger sizes, heavier defences and more effective offences (i.e. effective moves) highly advantageous in competing with conspecifics (Figure 19). In conjunction with these physical qualities, behavioural traits such as an aptitude for battling, or training, may have also surfaced. These types of individuals are successful within their own habitat, capturing more food, attracting desirable mates and thus gaining more opportunities to produce offspring with more effective morphologies and learnsets (see, ‘Genetic Transmission’). Due to the successful nature of these aggressive characteristics, they are more likely to be inherited and passed down the genetic line of a Pokémon’s species. The fierce evolutionary history of Pokémon is reflected in the major trend among Pokémon species to express larger, more aggressive derived forms, i.e. final members of the evolutionary family (see, ‘Evolutionary Family’).
Characteristics of a Pokémon battle
The behaviour of Pokémon is determined by their genetic nature and evolutionary history. Wild Pokémon use this instinct to capture prey, escape from predators, and to a large extent attain desirable partners. Pokémon associated with people therefore contain the same instincts and thus express similar behaviour. The practice of Pokémon battling serves as a natural vent for aggressive behavioural traits and ensures normal development. For a Pokémon, a trainer may serve as a consistent and reliable form of attaining experience; developing skills via battling as a competitive and healthy medium. Battling in a turn-based system, i.e. move for move against an opponent, may have arisen from the necessity to appear ‘fair’ in order to attract observing mates (Figure 20 to be inserted). Similarly, producing showy displays through a variety of moves may have served as a way of displaying the genetic quality of the individual to the opposite sex.
A process analogous to assortative mating may influence the Pokémon’s choice towards a particular trainer. A worthy trainer must adequately ensure each Pokémon in the team produces their best in battle. When entering a team guided by a trainer, Pokémon can be extremely ‘choosy’ and discerning of the personality and valour of the trainer. This discerning behaviour likely uses the same behavioural pathway that wild Pokémon use, to choose which conspecifics they spend time with. The group of individuals a social organism associates with can drastically affect the quality of mates encountered, potentially damaging the reproductive success of the individual. This may also explain the ‘disobedience phenomena’; Pokémon, whose trainers display incompetence, refuse to take orders from the trainer, potentially even attacking their human partner.
Organism – an individual form of life, such as a plant, animal, bacterium, protist, or fungus; a body made up of organs, organelles, or other parts that work together to carry on the various processes of life
Organelle – a differentiated structure within a cell, such as a mitochondrion, vacuole, or chloroplast, that performs a specific function
Protist – any of a large variety of usually one-celled organisms belonging to the kingdom Protista (or Protoctista). Protists are eukaryotes and live in water or in watery tissues of organisms. Some protists resemble plants in that they produce their own food by photosynthesis, while others resemble animals in consuming organic matter for food
Endemic – native to or confined to a certain region
Specialisation – to develop so as to become adapted to a specific function or environment; undergo specialisation
Physiological – being in accord with or characteristic of the normal functioning of a living organism
Discrete – consisting of distinct or separate parts
Parthenogenesis – a form of reproduction in which an unfertilized egg develops into a new individual, occurring commonly among insects and certain other arthropods
Mobility – the ability to move physically
Eukaryote – a domain of organisms having cells each with a distinct nucleus within which the genetic material is contained. Eukaryotes include protists, fungi, plants, and animals
Selective breeding – [artificial selection] the intentional breeding of organisms with desirable trait in an attempt to produce offspring with similar desirable characteristics or with improved traits
Vertebrate – a member of the subphylum Vertebrata, a primary division of the phylum Chordata that includes the fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, all of which are characterized by a segmented spinal column and a distinct well-differentiated head
Figure 4: An evolutionary family composed of two members. A basic form or larvae Darumaka, Pyrogrennian daruma, with a single subsequent stage Darmanitan (Pyrogrennian morphopithecus)
Figure 5: Pinsir, Dermoscutus dinognath, an evolutionary family with a single basic form and no subsequent evolutionary stages. Pinsir egg (on left) containing a theoretical embryo
Table 1: Compatibility of Pokémon from different species and egg groups (in brackets) maternal species reside on the columns, paternal species are on the rows
Table 2: Gamete production and resultant offspring - sex chromosome contributed maternally (column) and paternally (row)
Neoteny – retention of juvenile characteristics in the adults of a species, as among certain amphibians. The attainment of sexual maturity by an organism still in its larval stage
Clade – a group of organisms considered as having evolved from a common ancestor. A group of organisms (usually species) that are more closely related to each other than any other group, implying a shared most recent common ancestor
Species – group of organisms whose members are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
Conspecific – refers to individuals of the same species
Heterospecific – refers to individuals belonging to different species
Hybridisation – the act of mixing different species or varieties of animals or plants and thus to produce hybrids
Nomenclature – the procedure of assigning names to the kinds and groups of organisms listed in a taxonomic classification
Genome – the genome is the entirety of an organism's hereditary information
Chromosome – a structure found in the cells of most living organisms, chromosomes are composed of DNA and carry the genetic information that codes for an organism. May be differentiated into two groups: autosomal and sex
Evolutionary divergence – the accumulation of differences between groups which can lead to the formation of new species
Ontogeny – the origin and the development of an organism from the fertilized egg to its mature form
Phylogeny – the sequence of events involved in the evolutionary development of a species or taxonomic group of organisms
Evolutionary Development – evolutionary developmental biology (evolution of development or informally, evo-devo) is a field of biology that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to determine the ancestral relationship between them, and to discover how developmental processes evolved. It addresses the origin and evolution of embryonic development; how modifications of development and developmental processes lead to the production of novel features, such as the evolution of feathers
Express – to cause (itself) to produce an effect or a phenotype. To manifest the effects of (a gene)
Ancestral – of, relating to, or evolved from an ancestor or ancestors
Stratum – (plural; strata) a bed or layer of sedimentary rock having approximately the same composition throughout
Primitive – [ancestral] a descriptive term often used in the field of evolution to describe particular species or traits that are characteristic of an older evolutionary scale of development relative to more recent developments
Derived – features or traits considered more advanced than their associated primitive form, often unique to a species
Suppression – the restoration (or partial restoration) of a wild-type phenotype by a second mutation
Vestigial – having attained a simple structure and reduced size and function during the evolution of the species, e.g. the vestigial pelvic girdle of a snake
Embryogenesis – the development and growth of an embryo
Transitional fossil – fossils that show intermediate characteristics are called transitional fossils — they have characteristics that are intermediate in nature to organisms that existed both prior to it and after it. There are many examples of transitional fossils in the fossil record, including large-scale transitions such as from reptiles to birds…
Sentient – having sense perception; conscious
DNA – nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms
Syngamy – the fusion of gametes to produce a new organism
Horizontal gene transfer – horizontal gene transfer or transposition refers to the transfer of genetic material between organisms other than vertical gene transfer. Vertical transfer occurs when there is gene exchange from the parental generation to the offspring. Horizontal gene transfer is then a mechanism of gene exchange that happens independently of reproduction. Horizontal gene transfer is the primary reason for bacterial antibiotic resistance and in the evolution of bacteria that can degrade novel compounds such as human-created pesticides. This horizontal gene transfer often involves plasmids
Adaptive radiation – the diversification of several new species from a recent ancestral source, each adapted to utilize or occupy a vacant adaptive zone
Biome – a major regional or global biotic community, such as a grassland or desert, characterized chiefly by the dominant forms of plant life and the prevailing climate
Abiotic – nonliving, as in abiotic factor, which is a nonliving physical and chemical attribute of a system, for examplelight, temperature, wind patterns, rocks, soil, pH, pressure, etc. in an environment
Speciation – the formation of new species as a result of geographic, physiological, anatomical, or behavioural factors that prevent previously interbreeding populations from breeding with each other
Invertebrate – any animal lacking a backbone, including all species not classified as vertebrates
Terrestrial – living or growing on land; not aquatic
Mesopredator – a medium-sized predator which often increases in abundance when larger predators are eliminated; raccoons, skunks, snakes, cats, and foxes are mesopredators
Kleptoparasitism – a form of parasitism in which parasite steals items such as food or nest materials from other host individuals
Figure 3: Thundurus, Brontotheron anthropoid, a species with one known member (legendary Pokémon) Discharging wildly into the surroundings. This Pokemon is Flying/Electric-typed and is not known to evolve; it travels over the Unova region following and creating electrical storms. Brontotheron and two other similar Pokémon species (Anemotheron and Terratheron) form the Kami trio, three extremely rare Pokemon that alter the landscape and weather systems of Unova
LUCPA, Epigenetics and Phenotypic Plasticity
LUCPA
Evidence largely supports the theory that Pokémon evolved from a single-celled ancestor roughly 1.5 billion years ago; an alternate hypothesis however, identifies a single, multicellular organism as the ancestor to all species. The proposed LUCPA (last universal common Pokémon ancestor) of all Pokémon, Mew (Bioblast guianas), is able to perform every Pokémon move and thus, must have acquired all of the genetic material to do so. Some theorise that all Pokémon have evolved from this ancestor, thus the ability to express certain moves has secondarily been suppressed, or lost due to no expression for hundreds of millions of years. This alternative hypothesis states that although these learnsets are supressed, the genetics that encode for these moves and abilities still exists in the genomes of most species. The evidence supporting Bioblast guianas as the LUCPA of all Pokémon is doubted amongst many scientists and Pokéfans as it implies that the evolutionary path down which all extant Pokémon have developed is merely the ‘reawakening’ or expression of genes already present within Mew. This explanation runs counterintuitive to the evolution of the other kingdoms of organisms that develop particular genes over time depending on the environmental pressures they are exposed to; these genes may or may not be present in members of their lineage (past or future). Alternatively, B. guianas may have acquired all of the genetic material necessary to perform every move, from the necessary Pokémon over an extremely long period of time. Either of these hypotheses, (all extant Pokémon have either lost or supressed genes inherited from the LUCPA) are not verifiable as no DNA from the mythical B. guianas has ever been obtained for such an analysis. Reports of B. guianas performing every move are anecdotal and have obviously not been validated either. Evidence suggests the alternative hypothesis be discarded, as the most parsimonious, or likely explanation is that Bioblast guianas is in fact, not the ancestor of all Pokémon.
Epigenetics and Phenotypic plasticity
Epigenetic factors are potentially heritable elements that affect the expression of an individual’s genome without altering the underlying DNA structure. Epigenetic factors may be molecules created by the body during development or environmental chemicals that affect gene transcription.
The expression of a variety of phenotypes in response to a variety of environmental stimuli is known as phenotypic plasticity. An everyday example is the growth or moulting of thick mammalian hair, during the winter organisms may produce excess hair to aid in temperature maintenance, whilst during the summer the organism may lose this hair. Another, more extreme example of phenotypic plasticity is that of aphids (insects), which can produce wings when necessary. The genetic information that codes for wings is ‘dormant’ and requires the necessary trigger before this attribute is produced; a clone of the same individual may never develop wings if the particular circumstances aren’t encountered. A large proportion of an organism’s genotype may therefore not be expressed in a lifetime if the necessary triggers aren’t present.
Once conceived a Pokémon has a large proportion of move/technique encoding genes, inherited from the father, ‘covered’ or made unavailable by acetyl or methyl groups. As the individual develops over its lifetime, experience, stress, and other factors wipe clean the acetyl and methyl groups bound to the genome. This ‘clean slate’ state exposes the genes to transcription factors that produce proteins and other products necessary for the Pokémon to perform particular moves. These paternal genes are partially passed onto the next generation and are randomly re-clad by inhibiting epigenetic components. Thus the newly conceived Pokémon is unable to perform moves that have been methylated however may be able to express moves that escaped methylation. The acquisition of the specific gene or genes related to each move may have developed during the Pokémon’s particular evolutionary history, may have been acquired through inter-species breeding or alternatively may have been acquired via viral transmission.
Similar to the ontogeny recapitulating phylogeny aspect of a Pokémon’s metamorphosis, the switching on of genes encoding particular moves over a Pokémon’s lifetime may represent an evolutionary adaptation that was developed over many generations. Thus, as the final evolutionary form/stage of the family represents the most derived state of the species (most recent to appear in evolutionary time) the moves developed towards the end of the life cycle may also represent the most recently developed moves in evolutionary time. The disproportionate jump in power of these derived moves (generally expressed once the Pokémon has evolved into its final form(s)) provides great evidence for the ‘ontogeny recapitulating phylogeny’ model of Pokémon evolution, as well as other models underlying Pokémon ‘battle’ and ‘type’ theory (see, ‘Battling’ and ‘Pokémon types’, respectively).
Technical Machines (TMs) and Evolutionary Stones
TMs or technical machines
Technical machines are symbiotic viruses introduced into the host’s (Pokémon) system. The unique virus strain enters the organism with the host’s specific antigens on the surface of the virus’ coat, allowing it to be accepted by the immune system. Each TM and HM (hidden machine) represents a distinct strain of virus, classified TM01, TM02 etc. with specific antigens on their surface, capable of penetrating the immune systems of particular groups of Pokémon. Once inside the cell, each viral unit releases its genetic information, which is transcribed and produced by the host Pokémon’s ‘cellular machinery’. The viral units exit the cell, secondarily coat themselves in the cell's membrane, then continue to enter subsequent cells, continuing the process (Figure 21 to be inserted). The genetic information imparted by each virus is unique and codes for both the information to produce another virus particle as well as a unique phenotype expressed by the Pokémon. The particular phenotype varies between virus strains and potentially between Pokémon species, however is overwhelmingly beneficial. If the information imparted by the virus is beneficial, the host Pokémon will be favoured by both natural and sexual selection and potentially pass on this genetic information to the next generation. These symbioses are generally advantageous to both parties as the virus is replicated over successive generations and the Pokémon host may exhibit the advantageous TM phenotype. Each virus (TM or HM) is now sold commercially with a convenient atomising or spraying device containing infected cells. Complementary antiviral compounds are sold privately to neutralise the virus and related products from the host Pokémon’s system. It is thought that many TM virus strains are produced artificially with genetic modification techniques. Each virus strain has been assigned an acronym and number (which vary between regions) by marketing teams to avoid deterring consumers.
Evolutionary stones
Ordinarily the adaptations that allow an individual Pokémon to thrive in a particular environment are stored in the form of genes within the genome of the individual. A gene pool is the term used to describe the collective genomes of a population of organisms. Commonly, all members of a particular species will possess most of the same genes, but in different forms, these various forms are known as alleles. An obvious example may be the colour of eyes, the gene/s that produce(s) the pigment within eyes is present in most people however the form it takes may vary; different alleles code for different colours.
Extreme environmental conditions can influence a whole species; particular genes and alleles are then selected for, ultimately causing the genes to become more common. Over long periods of time the alleles responsible for keeping certain individuals alive become so widespread that every member of the species possesses a copy. When the species is no longer exposed to those potentially extreme conditions, the genes previously necessary for survival are no longer essential (long hair for example), however may still be retained within the species’ gene pool. Although relatively rare in other life forms, the genetic mechanisms of Pokémon predispose them to retaining redundant, functional genes, almost always turning them off secondarily as opposed to removing them. Mutations that result in beneficial changes generally occur in unnecessary copies of already functional genes. This genetic phenomenon is best exemplified with the recapitulation of the species’ phylogeny as well as evolutionary stones.
Evolutionary stones act as an epigenetic component by stimulating the expression of those attributes that were previously supressed within the organism's DNA. Consider the Pokémon species Flareon (Myriamorph ignisetae), this species evolved in an extremely hot environment; individuals from this species have therefore evolved adaptations to survive in extreme temperatures. If a large population of M. ignisetae (arbitrarily labelled, the ‘mild type population’) is removed from this extreme scenario and isolated in a mild environment, evolution would select individuals with other genes that are better adapted to the new, milder climate. Over evolutionary time the mild type population of Flareon would be entirely composed of individuals with dominant genes adapted to the mild climate. Due to the nature of Pokémon genetics, the ancestral genes that allowed M. ignisetae to survive in the extreme temperatures are retained, but not functional in the mild type population.
When exposed to an evolutionary stone, a variety of radical changes occurs in the individual Pokémon, the previously ‘dormant’ genes necessary for the ancestral species’ survival are simultaneously switched on. Exposure to these stones causes a Pokémon to instantly evolve, these individuals are physiologically similar to their ancestors and are therefore capable of surviving, if placed in their previous ancestral environment, e.g. extreme heat. The exact mechanism underlying this phenomenon is unknown however it is generally thought that the particular minerals in the stone stimulate the binding of a single ‘master’ genetic domain that stimulates a range of genetic pathways that switch on the genes necessary for evolution. Thus evolutionary stones may cause a Pokémon to instantly evolve into a stage not possible without the presence of the stone. The requisite for evolutionary stones and other epigenetic components in order to evolve is relatively rare amongst Pokémon (Figure 22 to be inserted). Other stones are available that stop the evolution or metamorphosis of a Pokémon, possibly by way of methylating the master domain necessary for healthy developmental evolution.
Abilities
Abilities are attributes that affect the way Pokémon interact with other individuals, often in a battle scenario. There are 164 different abilities; each Pokémon species does not have a specific ability, however some species do have unique, characteristic abilities. Sometimes, abilities are by-products that are intrinsic to a Pokémon’s physiology; ‘iron barbs’ is an ability that causes self-inflected damage to an attacking foe. Alternatively, some abilities are more exotic and afford distinct and obvious advantages. Not all abilities are beneficial, some are detrimental to the species, for example the ability ‘defeatist’ lowers the Pokémon’s capacity to attack when their health is low.
Although an individual Pokémon may only possess a single ability at one time, a particular Pokémon species may have a number of different potential abilities. The variation amongst individuals means that wild Pokémon will have different abilities; although not studied, these may be different alleles of a certain set of ‘ability’ genes.
Individual Variation: Personality, Shininess, Stats and the Pokérus
Individual variation
As with all species, individual variation is extremely important to the evolution of a species and its continued survival. Non-clonal Pokémon vary in a vast number of ways including size, attack, defence and speed capabilities, pathogen resistance, ‘ability’ and colour or ‘shininess’. The size (height/length) of Pokémon from the same species varies dramatically and often presents a much larger ‘spread’, including extremities, than similar animal counterpart species. There are commonly specific, minor differences between conspecific Pokémon of different genders, known as sexual dimorphism. Gender specific differences may be subtle or starkly unique (Figure 23 to be inserted).
Personality
The personality of individuals from the same species can vary substantially, however the largest differences in personality occur between Pokémon of different species. The personality and behaviour of an average Pokémon is more similar to a human than any other species of animal. The intelligence and resultant personality of a Pokémon is largely related to the species. Pokémon species with higher intelligence are capable of learning spoken words from humans and can develop an understanding of a large vocabulary. Most Pokémon are capable of heterospecific empathy, self-recognition/awareness, problem solving and many other attributes otherwise unique to humans. Particular types of Pokémon species can have a generic disposition determined by shared ancestry, for example Dark typed Pokémon (39 different species) are often conniving and deceitful Pokémon. Generalisations of Pokémon personality based upon type are not universal (inaccurate typecasting); individual variation plays a large role.
Behaviour of Pokémon is best defined as bimodal; almost all individuals exhibit both distinctly animalistic and humanoid tendencies. In the wild Pokémon form ecosystems similar to plants and animals and must hunt and kill other species to survive. Most Pokémon species also form large groups and have complex social interactions, requiring comprehensive behavioural and moral adaptations. The combination of these instincts results in a superficial similarity to humans with underlying primitive foundations.
Shininess
There is naturally variation in the general ‘colour scheme’ of individuals of a Pokémon species however there is a rare state in which individuals that are homozygous for a rare allele take on an alternative colour for the pigmentation of fur, skin etc. Roughly 1 in 8,000 individuals are homozygous for this pigmentation gene, thus a ‘shiny’ Pokémon, as they are known, are extremely rare. The gene evidently affects every aspect of a Pokémon’s pigmentation including; scales, eyes, fur, horns, claws, skin, feathers, flowers, leaves etc.
Natures
Consistent with the unique personality of each Pokémon is their ‘nature’; the nature of each Pokémon determines their aptitude for learning and gaining new experiences, ultimately determining the way they develop over the long term. The cause and effect of various natures is relatively intuitive, e.g. socially isolated individuals are less likely than outgoing individuals to be exposed to a particular experience. There are 25 defined natures, these result in the accentuation or suppression of particular attributes of the individual.
Pokérus
As well as the many TM and HM viruses that coexist with Pokémon, the Pokérus is a distinct viral species that infects only Pokémon. This virus, similar to TM viruses, is a beneficial mutualistic symbiosis that benefits both individuals. The virus infects the host cells, using it’s viral genetic machinery to aid in the production of proteins necessary for healthy host development. It is thought that the virus is transmitted via the respiratory system as a single Pokémon has the potential to infect a whole team of closely associated individuals over a short period of time. Although beneficial, the host’s immune system is capable of overwhelming the virus in ~2 days, once the host has recovered from the infection it also has lifelong immunity and is therefore unable to be reinfected.
Were the glossary definitions helpful? Were the illustrations an adequate size? Was the Science easy to follow?
Let me know what you think:
Figure 17: Marine apex predator, Eelektross (Electromorsus ferocis), using Crush Claw to ambush a terrestrial omnivorous species, Simipour (Hydrocercopes lax). L. pour is a second stage Water-type Pokémon; primarily a fruitivore, this Pokémon occasionally supplements it’s diet with protein from Pokémon prey. Electromorsus ferocis, is an Electric-type Pokémon and the final stage of the tynamo line (Electromorsus)
Figure 19: A Ground-typed Pokémon, Sandslash (Loricatus temenochela) locked in battle with a Poison-type, Ekans, (Ophitoxis oophag). Fierce battles such as this, produced a pressure on species to evolve lethal offensives and heavy offences to stay alive. The Poison Sting attack of O. oophag being dodged by L. temenochela
Selection – placing organisms under conditions where the growth of those with a particular genotype will be favoured
Parsimony – adoption of the simplest assumption in the formulation of a theory or in the interpretation of data, especially in accordance with the rule of Ockham's razor
Genotype – the genetic makeup, as distinguished from the physical appearance, of an organism or a group of organisms
Transcription factor – a protein that controls when genes are switched on or off (whether genes are transcribed or not). Transcription factors bind to regulatory regions in the genome and help control gene expression
Gene expression (switching on) – the full use of the information in a gene via transcription and translation leading to production of a protein and hence the appearance of the phenotype determined by that gene. Gene expression is assumed to be controlled at various points in the sequence leading to protein synthesis and this control is thought to be the major determinant of cellular differentiation in eukaryotes
Symbiosis – a close, prolonged association between two or more different organisms of different species that may, but does not necessarily, benefit each member
Allele – any of the possible forms in which a gene for a specific trait can occur. In almost all animal cells, two alleles for each gene are inherited, one from each parent. Paired alleles (one on each of two paired chromosomes) that are the same are called homozygous, and those that are different are called heterozygous. In heterozygous pairings, one allele is usually dominant, and the other recessive. Complex traits such as height and longevity are usually caused by the interactions of numerous pairs of alleles, while simple traits such as eye colour may be caused by just one pair
Gametes – a cell that fuses with another gamete during fertilization (conception) in organisms that reproduce sexually
Figure 15: A cave ceiling with two cave-dwelling species. An opportunistic ambush predator, Sableye (Phasmafusc gimmocculus) stalking an extremely common Flying/Poison species, Zubat (Haemophag anophthalmos). Sableye, a Dark/Ghost species, ordinarily feeds on inorganic minerals however also has the digestive machinery to consume flesh. The P. gimmocculus is using a Faint Attack, and is about to consume the roosting Zubat
Figure 14: A grazing Nidorino (Androcnidos cornu) this species is an omnivorous, temperamental Poison/Ground-typed Pokémon. The final form (Androcnidos arche) hunts smaller Pokémon species to supplement a largely plant-based diet
Gene transcription – the process by which genetic information is copied from DNA to RNA, resulting in a specific protein formation
Phenotype – the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, as determined by both genetic makeup and environmental influences
Antigen – any of the various substances that when recognized as non-self by the adaptive immune system triggers an immune response, stimulating the production of an antibody that specifically reacts with it
Mutualism – a symbiotic relationship between individuals of different species in which both individuals benefit from the association
Figure 9: ~40 million years ago, a battle between two adult (final) forms, before the evolution of subsequent stages. The Ice-typed carnivorous Pokémon, Cubchoo (Arctos rhinoblenn) hunting a Normal/Grass-typed prey species Deerling (Condiresignum herbfawnia). The Deerling is defending itself with the Energy Ball technique; the predatory A. rhinoblenn is subduing the prey with Icy Wind. Adaptive turn-for-turn style battling gets abandoned in life and death interactions, both Pokémon use whichever techniques necessary to survive
Convergent evolution – a kind of evolution wherein organisms evolve structures that have similar (analogous) structures or functions in spite of their evolutionary ancestors being very dissimilar or unrelated
Homozygous – of, or pertaining to an individual (or a condition in a cell or an organism) containing two copies of the same allele for a particular trait located at similar positions (loci) on paired chromosomes
Dimorphism – having two different distinct forms of individuals within the same species or two different distinct forms of parts within the same organism. Differences in appearance between the males and females of a species
Spread – a measure of the extent to which the values of a variable, in either a sample or a population, are spread out
Pathogenic – capable of causing disease
Extant – still in existence; not destroyed, lost, or extinct
Plasmid – a plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate from, and can replicate independently of, the chromosomal DNA
Sex-linked – characteristics that are determined by genes carried on the sex chromosome
Assortative mating – assortative mating is a non-random mating pattern where individuals with similar genotypes and/or phenotypes mate with one another more frequently than what would be expected under a random mating pattern
Suppression – the restoration (or partial restoration) of a wild-type phenotype by a second mutation
Ecosystem function – the interactions between organisms and the physical environment, such as nutrient cycling, soil development, water budgeting, and flammability
Detriment – damage, harm, or loss
Figure 1: Starter Pokémon from the Johto region standing on a laboratory staircase. From left to right; Cyndaquil (Dorsovulcan timere), Totodile (Daknosuchus familiaris), and Chikorita (Herbsuavis acrophyllus). Daknosuchus familiaris is a basic Water-type starter, H. acrophyllus, a Grass-type starter and, D. timere, the Fire-type starter using the Ember technique